Freeze-thaw durability of masonry units

Exterior masonry walls are exposed to many environmental factors which affect the durability of brick, one of which is freeze-thaw action. The severity of frost exposure and its affect on the durability of the brick can be affected by the moisture content of the brick at the start of freezing, the rate of cooling, the coldest temperature attained, and the number of the freeze-thaw cycles. Material properties can also affect the performance of brick. The rate of water absorption and surface drying characteristics, pore size distribution and interconnectedness, as well as material strength all play a role in how a brick will perform during freezing and thawing.

Spalling of brick beneath a joint between coping stones on a garden wall

The main objective of this project is to study the frost durability of clay brick. NRC-IRC laboratory studies primarily focus on accelerated, uni-directional freeze-thaw testing in an environmentally controlled cabinet. This cabinet allows a number of different standard freeze-thaw tests to be performed. Variation in the cooling rate, temperature and freeze-thaw cycle duration can be controlled in the cabinet and their effect on the performance of the brick noted. Along with this, additional materials tests can be performed to evaluate the properties of the bricks that are being tested in the freeze-thaw cabinet. Absorption, porosity, pore size distribution, surface area of pores, density and specific gravity are among the tests conducted to characterise the bricks. These tests are non-destructive or only need a very small sample to be taken from the brick which allows a catalogue of material properties to be logged for the same brick which is then placed in the cabinet.

Currently the project team is involved in confidential client driven contract work that continues to expand the understanding of frost durability of clay brick.

Related Projects

• Rehabilitation of Older Masonry Wall Assemblies
• Monitoring the Long-Term Performance of the Peace Tower
• Durability of Repointing Mortar

Publications - Case studies

Temperature measurements on brick veneer
Maurenbrecher, A.H.P. Chidiac, S.E.
7th Canadian Masonry Symposium (McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, 1995-06-04)
pp. 1-14. 1995


Frost damage to clay brick in a loadbearing masonry building
Maurenbrecher, A.H.P. Suter, G.T.
Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 20
pp. 247-253. 1993

Water- Shedding Details Improve Masonry Performance
Maurenbrecher, A.H.P.
Construction Technology Update, 23
pp. 4. 1998-12-01


Research publications

Ten years of frost testing at Sheffield Hallam University. E. A. Laycock. Construction and Building Materials, 16 (2002), pp 195-205.

A survey of literature relating to frost damage in bricks. A.W. Stupart, Masonry International, 1989, Vol. 3 (2) p. 42-50

Technological factors influencing the frost susceptibility of clay building materials / Technologische Einfluesse auf die Frostempfindlichkeit keramischer Baustoffe (text both in English and in German). Loek J.A.R. van der Klugt, ZI-Annual (1993), pp. 24-33.

Frost durability of Canadian clay bricks. J.H. Kung, Proceedings 7th International Brick Masonry Conference, 1985, Vol 1. Australia, p 245-251

Frost durability of clay bricks - evaluation criteria and quality control. Proceedings of the CBAC/DBR Manufacturer's Symposium. Proceedings No 8, DBR, 1984

Testing the frost susceptibility of bricks. G.G. Litvan, ASTM STP 589, 1975, pp. 123-132

Freeze-thaw durability of porous building materials. G.G. Litvan, Durability of Building Materials and Components, ASTM, STP 691, 1980. pp 455-463

Moisture content and freeze-thaw cycles of masonry materials. T. Ritchie and J. I. Davidson, ASTM Journal of Materials, Vol 3, No 3, Sep 1968, p 658-671

The freezing-and-thawing environment: what is severe. N.M.Vanderhorst and D. J. Janssen, 1990, ACI 122, pp. 181-200. (this article deals with the freeze-thaw resistance of concrete but has relevance to masonry too because it discusses the freeze-thaw environment and its relation to the testing).

Weathering and frost testing of structural ceramics. J J van der Velden. Ziegelindustrie International. 1983 pp 18-26

Frost damage to masonry structures and tests for frost resistance. R Ylä-Mattila. Masonry International. Winter 1987.

Relation between physical properties and durability of commercially marketed brick. G C Robinson, J R Holman & J F Edwards. American Ceramic Society Bulletin. Vol 56, No 12. 1977. pp 1071-1075, 1079.

The relationship between pore structure and durability of brick. G C Robinson. American Ceramic Society Bulletin. Vol 63, No 2. 1984. pp 295-300.

Frost resistance and pore size distribution in bricks. M Maage. Matériaux et Constructions, Vol 17, No 101. 1984. pp 345-350.

Failure of brick with high compressive strength, low water absorption, and saturation coefficient higher than 0.80 under severe weather conditions. S L Marusin. Ceramic Bulletin, Vol 69, No 8. 1990. pp 1332-1337.

Test methods

Uni-directional freeze-thaw tests:

Uni-directional freezing & thawing durability tests for brick masonry panels. B.S. Kaskel. ASTM Special Technical Publication 1246. 1996. pp 149-159.

The development of a European freezing test for clay bricks. F Peake & R W Ford. Masonry International. Vol 6, No 2. Sep 1992. p 47-50.

Produits céramiques pour parements de murs et de sols. Gélivité - cycles de gel-dégel. Norme belge NBN B27-009 (1996). Insitut belge de normalisation.

An alternative test for determining the frost resistance of bricks. M.R Arnott and A.H.P. Maurenbrecher. Technical note, The Masonry Society Journal, Vol 9, No 1, August 1990. p 105

Frost testing by uni-directional freezing, L. J. A. R. van der Klugt, British Ceramic Transactions and Journal, 1988, Vol. 87 (1), Jan-Feb p. 8-12

Frost testing by uni-directional freezing / Frostpruefverfahren mit einseitiger Befrostung, L. J. A. R. van der Klugt, Ziegelindustrie International 2/89 (1989), pp. 92-98

The test method of freezing bricks: its influence on their durability. T Ritchie. Journal of the Canadian Ceramic Society. Vol 44, 1975. P 21-22

MS.A.3 Uni-directional freeze-thaw test for masonry units and wallettes. Materials & Structures, Vol 31, Oct 1998. pp 513-519 [RILEM draft recommendation based on Dutch freeze-thaw test]

MS.B.1 Freeze/thaw test of masonry panels. Materials & Structures. Vol 31, Jan-Feb 1998. pp 16-19 [RILEM draft recommendation based on British test]

prEN 772 Part 22 (Methods of test for masonry units - Part 22: Determination of freeze/thaw resistance of clay masonry units). Draft standard 1999. [this will be a pre-standard for public comment; it has not been published yet]

Dutch standard NEN 2872 Testing of stony materials: Determination of frost resistance - single sided freezing in a fresh water environment. 1989.

Omni-directional freeze-thaw tests:

CSA Standard A82.2 Methods of sampling and testing brick

ASTM C67 Test methods of sampling and testing brick and structural clay tile

ASTM C1262 Evaluating the freeze-thaw durability of manufactured concrete masonry units and related concrete units.

Related Information

Institutes:

• NRC Institute for Research in Construction